BASIC EMOTIONS IN THE 2008 US PRESIDENTIAL DEBATES: WHAT AND HOW

The present study investigates the basic emotions in the 2008 US Presidential Debates. Basic emotions refer to the emotional state or the strong feeling that is revealed through word use. In the presidential debates, each candidate conveyed ideas, information, and criticisms, and they also proposed a number of programs in the debates. In the delivery of the ideas, emotions accompany the speakers’ opinions. The emotions of the candidates were depicted in the words used. Such emotions can be a reflection of personal, group, and/or societal emotions as a result of an evaluation of social phenomena, situations, and conditions faced by people in society. Data used in this study were taken from three transcripts of the presidential debates between Democratic candidate Barrack Obama and his Republican opponent John McCain. All data were classified in terms of literal and non-literal expressions and analyzed comprehensively by using cognitive appraisal theory and other related theories that can be expanded in terms of basic emotion framework, function, value, and politeness framework. From the data analysis, the various emotions were verbalized through literal words or using vocabulary for emotion, figurative languages such as metaphor, personification, and irony/sarcasm; repetition of the same words, phrases, clauses/lexical bundles; and rhetorical questions. These words show how the expression of emotions reflects the function and values. This study is useful for improving communication skills to construct a polite, dynamic, and colorful speech.


Introduction
Basic emotions expressed can be regarded as an important part of forming interpersonal relationships and build 'self-image' through the choice of words, positive (polite) or negative (rude words/impolite). The way in which someone expresses his emotion can build a good relationship or destroy it. Furthermore, in political discourse such as debates during the presidential election, each candidate conveyed ideas, information, and criticisms, and they proposed a number of programs. In the delivery of the ideas, emotions accompany their opinions. The emotions of the candidates were depicted in the words used. Furthermore, the candidates tried to attract the audiences' attention and to convince the public that one of them was the best candidate. This paper focuses on the basic emotions expressed by the words (verbal). This is an interesting topic to pursue in analyzing the political speeches of the presidential candidates because in this situation the candidates tried to express their emotions such as sympathy, disappointment, and care as an evaluation of things happening in the social phenomena as well as to attract, influence and motivate the audience to vote for one of them. Facing the economic crisis, each candidate expressed his care for and empathy with the American people. The emotional expressions were expressed through his words during the debates.
As an example, in a study carried out by Lakoff & Kövecses (1987), the emotion 'anger' is expressed in the use of metaphors. They find a special case of metaphor: "ANGER IS A HOT FLUID IN A CONTAINER". For example, "He was boiling, Tony exploded, You are seething, He was fuming for hours, She was pissed off, and After they let off some steam, they felt better". All these sentences use metaphors that mean "an implicit comparison between things that are essentially different yet have something in common" (Lucas, 2009: 232), and Lucas also recommends that metaphor can be used to create imagery in one's speeches.
In this study, as an operational definition, emotion refers to all feelings including the three constructionsaffect, emotion, and moodthat simultaneously arise because of an event, an experience, or ongoing social phenomena. This feeling or emotion can be expressed verbally through the use of words. There is no difference between affect, emotion, and mood as other researchers do because this study focuses on 'words reflecting all strong feelings or emotions. Therefore, the concept of emotions refers to the tendency of all feelings that speakers have in delivering their speeches. The three constructions can be seen in the words used in the texts and the ways in which the speakers (candidates) employ their choice of words in expressing the basic emotions. The various emotions expressed in the words used have some functions and values that can reflect a model of politeness speeches of the candidates.
The way in which the Presidential candidates -Obama and McCaincommunicated their visions and missions during the 2008 US Election Campaign (EC) has been widely studied by a number of people who have concentrated on the word usage, for example, the study of the frequency of words used by Obama and McCain, the distribution for different parts of speech, and the ideology implied in their speeches (Pennebaker, 2008b;Savoy, 2008). The results did not show the use of words to construct the specific basic emotions for instance anger, sadness, disappointment, and optimism. Most of the studies focused on the frequency of word usage and the ideology implied in Obama's words. Some of the results show that McCain was slightly more personal and emotional than Obama, and he also used more verbs in the future tense. Obama used words that suggested he was more cognitively complex with longer words and more complicated sentences, and Obama also tended to use more exclusive words and tentative words such as perhaps and maybe, that determine his views of the world from different perspectives.
Then, Pennebaker (2008a) deduces that McCain is more emotional than Obama. In his analysis, he did not analyze in detail how the political speeches used emotional expressions. His interpretation comes from the frequency of emotional words used by McCain. Based on my observation, I see that the information, ideas, and argumentation delivered by the two candidates are full of emotions. They did not only reveal their emotional expression directly but also indirectly. Through my observation, their speeches do not only consist of one basic emotion but there can also be more than one basic emotion in their utterances. Such emotions are called "mixed or combined emotions". For example, anger: reproach + distress, Elliott (1992) calls this "compound emotions" and I will use this term in this paper.
Next, Savoy (2008) analyzed a US political corpus comprising 189 speeches given by Obama and McCain during the year 2007-2008. He analyzed them from both statistical and dynamic perspectives. He defines the results from the words most frequently used. For example, the most frequent words used or overused by Obama are the term "that", the conjunction "because", and the adverb "why"; and Savoy (2008) defines these as reflecting his attention to explaining the situation. Then, he says for McCain, no word can be defined as overused, and only the verb "is" has been underused during the different months of the year 2008. In addition, the 20 words most frequently used during the campaign were also found, for example, the words the, be, and, of, that, to, in, have, of, in, I, and we. Similarly, Savoy did not analyze the basic emotions of the speakers such as anger, sadness, and disappointment described in the word use.
In addition, Krzywinski (2008) has also examined the debates for the words frequently used and the distribution of different parts of speech, the elements unique to a candidate's speech, and central concepts. Obama has a lower verb-to-adverb frequency and might be one to more frequently characterize actions. The results also show Obama had the lowest noun-to-adverb ratio (7.7), compared to 9.7 for McCain, 9.8 for Palin, and 10.9 for Biden. Furthermore, Obama's delivery was focused more on action and movement rather than static concepts. Like Savoy, Krzywinsky did not analyze the basic emotions described through the words used by Obama.
Furthermore, Post (2009) has analyzed six campaign speeches of Obama and McCain from the 2008 US election. He studied the political discourse through the critical discourse analysis (CDA) approach to see how Obama and McCain make use of textual persona to frame the ideological positions through the representation of social actors and social action in describing America as contemporary in the case of Obama and traditional in the case of McCain. The results show, from the grammatical realization across linguistic and semantic representations of text, that Obama recontextualizes himself as an abstraction of America, while McCain recontextualizes himself as a symbol of America. Post (2009) states that the symbols can be seen from the usage of selected texts of Obama such as "Through you, we, (I, as Change) can help the country reclaim our belief in the American Promise,' while McCain's seems to denote 'Through me (and what I have learned), I can save the country if you fight with me.". Furthermore, he says that meaning was utilized to shape the majority of categories within Obama's discourse, and for McCain, the function was utilized to shape the majority of categories within his discourse.
Then, Wang (2010) also studied Obama's speeches from the perspective of CDA and Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL). The data were taken from "Obama's Victory Speech" (2008) and "Obama's Inaugural Address (2009)". The study focuses on transitivity and modality in which ideology and power can be studied. He finds that Obama used more simple words, short sentences, and colloquial or easy words. In his analysis of transitivity, he finds a material process and a process of doing which have been used most often in Obama's speeches. Therefore, Obama's speeches tried to arouse the American people's confidence in the president and his government in the following four years. Through modality, Obama made his audience more easily able to understand and accept his political speeches by means of modal verbs, tense, first-person pronouns (to shorten the distance between him and his audience). From the analysis, neither Wang (2010) nor Post (2009) analyzed how emotions were described in Obama's speeches.
From the brief descriptions, the focus of the previous studies was on lexical analysis and representation of ideology. The focus of this research is on language and emotions; specifically what emotions are expressed verbally and how the candidates utilize words as a reflection of function and values of the fundamental life of the task.

Language, Basic Emotion and Cognition Framework
This framework consists of the concepts of basic emotion and cognition (cognitive appraisal theory). The term 'basic' emotions refer to the 'big' or 'primary' emotions or to primary emotion that covers other emotions. The term 'basic' has three meanings: 1) to differentiate one emotion from another emotion in important ways; for example, fear, anger, disgust, sadness, and contempt; all negative emotions, differ in the appraisal, antecedent events, probable behavior response, physiology, and other characteristics. Similarly, amusement, pride in achievement, satisfaction, relief, and contentment, all of our positive emotions, differ from one other; (2) to indicate emotions evolved for adaptive value in dealing with fundamental life tasks; (3) to form more complex or compound emotions (Ekman, 1999).
Then, the cognitive appraisal theory refers to the theory of emotion which implicates people's personal interpretations of an event in determining their emotional reaction. Therefore, the term cognition refers to the mental processes involved in gaining knowledge and comprehension, including thinking, knowing, remembering, judging, and problem-solving. Emotion and cognition are intimately intertwined just as emotion and motivation are connected. It is easier to understand emotion by considering cognition (Bamberg, 1997;Strongman, 2003) In a framework of language, emotion, and cognition, the various emotions revealed in the words used can be examined. Language, and specific words, are the tools of a speaker's craft; good speakers have to pay attention to language use and how it works because the goal of public speaking is to gain the desired response from the audience. Good speakers should be aware of the meanings of words whether refers to denotative, connotative or pragmatic meaning, and know how to use language accurately, clearly, vividly, and appropriately (Lucas, 2009). Related to this, in the presidential debates, the candidates tried to influence thinking and to motivate action in the audience. That is why their speeches consist of persuasive speech and the target is the audience. Their efforts attract the audience's attention. This means that the speakers have to build their credibility, using evidence and reasoning, and appealing to the emotions. The choice of words in expressing various emotions plays a role.

Function, Value, and Politeness Framework
This framework consists of the concepts of function, value, and politeness. The function of emotion is an evaluating statement of an event or as information about social norms, people, events, and situations especially if we examine the function of emotion from the perspective of public phenomena in social situations of interpersonal interaction. This perspective is focused on how emotions are manifested, mutually interpreted, and processed during the interaction, and on the practices, participants use to manifest, interpret, and process emotions (Fiehler, 2002). Furthermore, communication of emotions is regarded as transmission of evaluations; therefore each emotion can be described as an evaluating statement. In the following, we can see the schema to clarify emotions from a functional perspective.

"Emotion A is an evaluating statement about X On the basis of Y as Z "
X refers to the situation, another person (action, characteristics), One's self (action characteristics), events and circumstances, Articles, Mental production. Y refers to expectations, interests, desires, social norms and morals, self-concept, picture of the other one. Z refers to in the agreement, not in agreement.
This theory is used to examine the function of emotions expressed by the candidates while debating topics, situations, or conditions that happened.
This concept shows us that if an emotion is communicated in the interaction, this is equivalent to the communication of an evaluating statement. For example, the emotion disgust can be expressed through behavior and/or by words such as "I am disgusted by this meal", "Terrible!" or "I find the meal repulsive"; we can see that a specific negative evaluation of the meal is expressed. Furthermore, evaluation of things tends to be communicated through emotions. The emotions can be positive emotions such as happiness, love, and care or negative emotions such as anger, dislike, fear, sadness, disappointment, etc. Positive emotion refers to an effort to include, and negative emotion refers to an effort to exclude. In the presidential debates, we can judge the emotions revealed as an evaluation of the opponent of the situation, condition or actions. In expressing positive emotions we can see the positive words used such as 'optimistic, anticipate, proud, love, beloved, hope, like, very happy, care, etc.'; whereas the negative words tend to be used to express negative emotions such as 'hate, angry, suffering, worry, terror, depress, threat, great threat, ...don't understand.., ...wrong..', The words used to express such negative emotions can have a negative impact on the opponent or to the speaker himself. This can be related to the politeness principles, specifically to maxims of politeness that have to be obeyed if we are to appear polite in speaking.
To be polite means behaving in a way that is not rude and shows that a person does not only think about himself. Expressing emotions, specifically negative emotions can be impolite because people use negative words to express such emotions. The use of negative words or rude words can make people ashamed and humiliated. In order to be polite, it is suggested that a speaker should consider the politeness principles that refer to "the expression of the speaker's intention to mitigate Face threats carried by certain Face-Threatening Acts (FTAs) toward another" (Brown & Levinson, 1987). One way to mitigate the face-threatening acts is using "hedges' (mitigating devices). For example, giving praise before expressing the emotions anger, dislike, or disgust. The use of hedges can obey the politeness maxims: approbation maxim (a. minimize dispraise of another., b. maximize praise other), and modesty maxim (minimize praise of self; maximize dispraise of self). In this study, I use the two maxims to evaluate the emotions as positive or negative emotions with or without hedges. I also use the concept 'cognitive model of emotion' to analyze positive or negative emotions. As stated by Kõveccess (2002), the cognitive model of emotion refers to five things in one's head to create emotion, namely (1) cause, (2) emotion exists, (3) control,(4) loss of control, and then (5) action. In my view, action can be words or behavior.
The concepts were used to determine the emotions described in the words, specifically positive emotions and negative emotions. Positive emotion means 'an effort to include', as a result of an action or a person's inability to control his emotion; and negative emotion means 'an effort to exclude', as a result of a person's inability to control his emotion. Regarding all the emotions described in the data, it will be seen how the words are employed to express such emotions, and then we can see the word categories or lexical bundles used in expressing emotions. Furthermore, it can be seen that a person expressing negative emotions sometimes uses negative words or rude words that can violate politeness principles. Therefore, to be polite in expressing negative emotions, a person needs to use a "pragmatic consideration" in order to mitigate face-threatening acts (FTA's).

Methodology
The approaches used to analyze the data were a phenomenological approach to feeling, pragmatic-discourse analysis, lexical analysis, and public speaking. These approaches were used because the study of the research is language use that expresses the basic emotions. This research tried to relate the language used in a discourse to the society and explored the emotions and meaning in words chosen to convey the information.
Data of this study were the words that reflect the emotions. The data were identified and grouped by using the concept of emotion and cognition or cognitive appraisal theory (CAT), and the Cambridge Dictionaries Online (CDO). The data were classified in terms of literal (direct emotional expressions) and non-literal (indirect emotional expressions) and were analyzed comprehensively by using the three theoretical frameworks mentioned previously.
There were some procedures to do, all emotions words were listed and classified in terms of emotion words (vocabulary for emotions) for direct expressions, and indirect expressions. The classified data were analyzed in terms of the manifestation of basic emotions expressed and the most often described in the texts by counting the emergence of such emotions. Analyzing the words employed in terms of figurative language such as metaphor, personification, and irony, and other types of emotional expressions, in terms of repetitions such as the repetition of the same word, phrase, or clause. Then, analyzing the emotions expressed by using a framework of value, a cognitive model, and politeness principles. And, discussing and interpreting the results.

4
Results and Findings

Basic Emotions in the Presidential Debates
There are a number of emotions described through the word used by the two candidates, Obama-McCain in the Presidential Debates, but not all the emotions stated by Parrot can be found in the texts or in the presidential debates. This is because the data were analyzed from the perspective of political discourse while Parrot from social psychology.
Besides this, the emotion anticipation and compound emotions were also found. According to the Cambridge Dictionaries Online (henceforth, CDO), anticipation refers to "a feeling of excitement about something that is going to happen in the near future". In the texts, this emotion has been expressed through the words utilized by the two candidates while discussing their programs to solve the economic problems. The compound emotion means the description of more than one emotion in an utterance such as anger + care, anticipation + optimism + eagerness. Then, such emotions will be classified into two categories, 'basic emotions and their scopes' (see table 1).  (7) ANTICIPATION includes eagerness, optimism, and tolerance, and (8) compound emotions consist of (a) sadness + disappointment + sympathy, (b). anticipation + optimism + eagerness. (c). love + care + desire, (d) anger + care. From the data collected, I find that the emotions most often described in the texts are (1) sadness, (2) anticipation, (3) joy, (4) anger, (5) love.
From the data obtained, the emotions most often expressed by the two candidates were disappointment, anticipation, optimism, eagerness, care, and scorn/dislike. If these emotions are related to the emotion list classified by Parrot (2001), the emotions refer to the primary emotion SADNESS (disappointment), ANGER (dislike/scorn), JOY (optimism, eagerness), LOVE (care), and ANTICIPATION (optimism + enthusiasm + hope).
Furthermore, McCain used his emotional expression more directly often than Obama, especially in describing the emotion of sadness, he tended to use a literal way to describe his feelings or his emotions. For example in expressing his sadness, McCain used the words sad, not feeling too great, hurting, half excited, regret, hurtful if it is compared with Obama. This reflects that McCain is more emotional than Obama because Obama did not use such words. This is similar to Pennebaker's statement (2008a) that McCain was more emotional than Obama. Meanwhile, for the emotion anticipation, Obama expressed this emotion directly and indirectly. For direct expression he used the word 'anticipate', but McCain did not use the word 'anticipate'. This can be interpreted that Obama was more confident and clear with his programs to be done for the future after he was elected as the next president.

Ways to Reveal the Emotions
Based on the data analysis, there were some ways to verbalize the emotions, specifically the most prominent emotions, namely using the vocabulary for emotion, such as sad, happy, nervous, love, beloved, angry, fear, regret, optimistic, proud, happy, worry, fearful, glad, and care, using modifier (table 2), using figurative language for instance metaphor, personification, and irony (table 3), and using repetition or lexical bundles, for example, repetition of the same words, phrases, clauses (lexical bundles a term used by Biber & Barbieri (2007) and questions or rhetorical questions (see table 4).  how did we get into this situation in the first place? ....... But we're also going to have to look at, how is it that we shredded so many regulations?

Care
Positive expectation

Function and Value of Emotional Manifestation Function
Based on data analysis, in a framework of function adapted from Fiehler (2002), the emotions expressed by the two candidates as a result of the evaluation of 'some things' happened and faced by Americans. The emotions expressed functioned as evaluation of a number of things that happened and were faced by the American people or by the candidates themselves. They brought together all of their experiences to express such emotions in agreement or disagreement with the evaluations. If it is agreed, the positive emotion will be expressed, if not the negative emotions will be expressed. Then, 'semi negative' emotions also were found that refer to the emotions expressed by considering politeness principles.
As a result, the emotions expressed by the two candidates functioned as evaluation of (1) the actions done by the current government in US, (2) the wrong perception of ideas, (3) the impact of economic problems, (4) the recruitment of new generation, (5) the dependency on other countries, (6) the personal/individual works or other people works, (7) the fundamental economy, (8) the childhood education or achievement gap, (9) the infrastructure, (10) the acquiring nuclear weapons, (11) the program of health insurance, (12) the terrorist organizations, (13) the school system, (14) the achievement or success of a person, and (15) the event in Afghanistan, Russia, etc.

Value
The words used such as positive (polite) or negative (rude) words can build a better 'public image'. Therefore, the ways to reveal the emotions can attract the audience's attention to voting. In the presidential debates, the intentions of the candidates focus on how each can persuade people or convince people that he is the best candidate. Finally, the emotional expressions in their speeches can be regarded as one of the important factors that can influence the way in which people think or behave.
As stated previously, the emotions revealed can be assessed by evaluating the words used by the candidates. From the findings, I propose that the basic emotions can be valued and grouped into three categorizations, namely (1) positive emotion, (2) negative emotion, and (3) 'semi negative emotion. Positive emotion refers to 'an attempt or an intention to include'. It means 'taking the whole into consideration; working on learning more viewpoints, interacting more with others, and enjoying making things better". Negative emotion refers to 'an attempt or intention to exclude'. It means to strengthen one's own position at the expense of others; keeping bad stuff away, destroying what is perceived as a threat" (quoted from Funch in HTTP: www.worldtrans.org/TP/TP2/TP2ATOP.HTML).
The positive emotions refer to "positive words" that were also employed by the candidates to convey the information in order to praise the opponents, audience, or to pay attention to the audience. Therefore, the positive words used can be regarded as positive emotions because they can make people feel glad or happy. Positive emotions are fueled by an underlying desire for enjoyment and unity, such as interest, enthusiasm, laughter, empathy, action, curiosity.
The negative emotions are fueled by an underlying fear of the unknown, a fear of the actions of others, and a need to control them or stop them to avoid being harmed. In the presidential debates, some words were used by the candidates as a result of the loss of control of their emotions. They tend to reveal their emotions such as dislike, anger, annoyance, and fear directly. They tried to strengthen his own position at the expense of the other. Each candidate attacked his opponent's ideas and destroyed what was perceived as a threat. From the data obtained the negative emotions were expressed through the words chosen. In this context, the words were regarded as "negative words" to express negative emotions such as dislike, anger, disappointment, and annoyance. As 'an evaluating statement' the negative emotions can be regarded as aggressive-opposing emotions (a term used by Santangelo, 2009).

Value and Politeness
The negative emotions revealed do not follow the politeness principles because the negative words used tend to dispraise the opponent (the candidate). This will threaten the "face" of the candidate. According to Brown and Levinson (1987), "the expression of the speaker's intention is to mitigate face threats carried by certain Face-Threatening Acts (FTAs) toward another".
Based on this theory, people have 'positive face' and 'negative face'. Positive face means people want to be liked, understood, admired, etc. Negative face means people do not want to be impeded by others. Therefore, it commonly happens that people want their "face" to be protected. That is why Brown and Levinson (1987) proposed a number of strategies to be used as mitigation of face-threatening acts (FTAs).
Moreover, Leech (1983), in order to respect other people, postulates some maxims to be obeyed, some of them are approbation maxims that refer to (a) minimize dispraise of others, (b) maximize praise of others; modesty maxim refers to minimize praise of self; maximize dispraise of self'. These maxims suggest that we have to admire or respect people more than we admire or respect ourselves. From the data obtained, I found the two maxims were violated by the candidates, especially McCain, who tended to dispraise Obama, for instance by repeating the words "...does not understand" several times.
Meanwhile, there were a number of negative emotions expressed by using 'hedges' to reduce "face-threatening acts". I propose that this case belongs to 'semi-negative emotions'. Semi-negative emotion refers to the emotions revealed by considering the politeness principles. It means, the candidates are regarded as having lost control of their emotions, they keep expressing their emotions such as anger or dislike but they use some words as hedges (a term proposed by Brown and Levinson 1987). The hedges were used in 'semi-negative emotion', for example in the emotion dislike, anger, and fear, i.e. "You're absolutely right..., but...; "I'm pleased... but...", "I've got to correct a little bit of....".

Discussion
In expressing emotions one should pay attention to the choice of words. Because the basic emotions can be expressed in various ways, people can use different words and different categories of words; for example in maximizing the strong feeling of fear, people can express it with "it's a great threat,...greatest threat.., pride by using words such as: "...very proud... really proud...."; sadness by using "I am sad, I feel so sad, ...not feeling too great.., ...so hurtful...etc." Moreover, the use of an intensifier can be a simple model for people or English students to express the same feeling with different words.
The emotion rules proposed by Fiehler (2002) can be modified in the context of Presidential Debates because the emotions expressed during the debates did not only consist of one basic emotion. There is more than one basic emotion, each has its own scope. These are called compound emotions.
Furthermore, the emotions expressed literally or lexically show gradability in expressing the emotions by using intensifiers that function as 'maximizers' or 'minimizers' of such emotions. For example, '...so hurtful...', very proud...', '...great threat..', '...the greatest threat...' are used to increase the quality of the emotions expressed (maximizer), and '...a little fearful..', '...a little nervous..', '...half excited..', '...not feeling too great..' to decrease the quality of the emotions expressed (minimizer). These findings show the various ways of using lexical or emotional words to reveal emotions. From the descriptions, we can see that the function of emotions can raise the positive and negative emotions or 'semi-negative emotions'. The emotions can be used to attract the audience's attention to vote. In the presidential debates, the intentions of the candidates focus on how they can persuade people or convince people that they are the best candidate. Therefore, the emotional expressions in their speeches can be regarded as one of the important factors that can influence how people think or behave. If they cannot control their emotions it will be reflected through the worduse as an expression of negative emotions and "semi-negative emotions". If they can control their emotions, we can see that the words reflect positive emotions.
Then, basic emotions that have to be expanded for effective communication are positive emotions and 'semi-negative emotions'. Negative emotions with negative words are not suggested because they tend to make other people hurt, embarrassed, and humiliated.

Conclusion
During the debates, each candidate gave information and proposed solutions and criticized the government's policy and the social phenomena that were happening in America. In the texts of the three transcripts (1st-3rd Transcript), the candidates proposed their own policies to be carried out or applied if they were elected as the next president. From all emotions mentioned, the most prominent emotions expressed were SADNESS (disappointment, displeasure); ANGER (annoyance, scorn, dislike), JOY (hope, optimism, eagerness), LOVE (caring, sympathy, like), and ANTICIPATION. Each of the candidatesin this case, Senator Barack Obama and John McCaintried to convince the audience that he was the best candidate. They reveal their emotions by using figurative language, repetition of the same word, phrase, clause, or lexical bundles, and rhetorical questions.
The study of emotions can be worth expanding from the perspective of linguistics and/or applied linguistics. Many research topics can be investigated in the future, for example (1) how the emotions of students are expressed while they are studying languages, (e.g. studying a second language) and how their culture influences them in expressing emotions, (2) the importance of using figurative languages such as metaphor in describing the basic emotions, (3) the subjects of positive and negative emotion in a written or spoken discourse. I believe that the study of emotions through the perspectives of linguistics and applied linguistics can enrich the research domain for linguists and for others who are interested in studying language and emotions.